A comprehensive planting manual for every major seed variety across all climate zones and regions of the world — from the Arctic to the Tropics.
Published by Seed Bank Directory — seedbankdirectory.com
For Canada, USA, Europe, Australia, Asia, Africa & South America
© 2026 All rights reserved.
This guide is organized by plant family and type, then by world region and climate zone. Use the chapter links below to navigate directly to the section you need.
Before planting anything, you must understand your climate. This chapter explains the major world climate classification systems and how to use them.
The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map divides North America into 13 zones based on average annual minimum winter temperatures, ranging from Zone 1 (below -51°C / -60°F) to Zone 13 (above 21°C / 70°F). Each zone is subdivided into "a" and "b" subcategories representing 2.8°C (5°F) differences. Canadian gardeners typically work in Zones 0–8, while most of the continental United States falls in Zones 3–10.
However, hardiness zones only tell you about cold tolerance. They say nothing about heat, humidity, rainfall, or soil conditions — all of which matter enormously for successful seed germination and plant growth.
For a more complete global picture, the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system is the most widely used framework worldwide. It divides Earth's climates into five main groups:
| Code | Climate Type | Key Characteristics | Major Regions |
|---|---|---|---|
| A | Tropical | Year-round warmth, heavy rainfall, no true winter | Amazon, Central Africa, Southeast Asia, Caribbean |
| B | Arid/Semi-Arid | Precipitation less than potential evaporation | Sahara, Arabian Peninsula, Australian Outback, Atacama |
| C | Temperate | Mild winters, distinct seasons, moderate rainfall | Western Europe, Pacific Coast, Mediterranean, SE Australia, NZ |
| D | Continental | Cold winters, warm summers, large temperature range | Canada, Russia, northern USA, Northern Europe |
| E | Polar/Alpine | No true warm season, permafrost common | Arctic, Antarctic, high mountain regions |
The growing season is defined as the number of frost-free days per year — the period between the last spring frost and the first fall frost. Knowing your growing season length is critical for determining which crops you can grow and when to start seeds.
| Region | Growing Season | Last Spring Frost | First Fall Frost |
|---|---|---|---|
| Northern Canada (Zone 2–3) | 90–120 days | Late May – Early June | Early September |
| Southern Canada / Northern USA (Zone 4–5) | 120–160 days | Mid April – Mid May | Late September – October |
| Mid USA / Southern UK (Zone 6–7) | 160–200 days | Late March – Mid April | October – November |
| Southern USA / Mediterranean (Zone 8–9) | 200–270 days | February – March | November – December |
| Subtropical (Zone 10) | 300–330 days | January or no frost | December or no frost |
| Tropical (Zone 11+) | 365 days | No frost | No frost |
| Northern Europe (Zone 4–6) | 130–180 days | April – May | October |
| Southern Australia / NZ | 180–300 days | August–September (Southern Hemisphere) | April–May (SH) |
All season references in this guide default to the Northern Hemisphere. Southern Hemisphere gardeners (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, South America) should reverse the seasons: our "spring" is your "autumn." Plant in our "autumn months" (March–May) for your spring planting window (September–November).
Even within a single hardiness zone, your specific garden may behave quite differently from the regional average. Microclimates are small-scale climate variations caused by topography, proximity to water, buildings, and aspect (the direction your garden faces). A south-facing slope in Zone 5 may effectively grow Zone 6–7 crops. A frost pocket at the bottom of a valley in Zone 7 may kill crops that would thrive 50 metres higher on the same property.
Key microclimate factors to assess in your garden: slope direction, wind exposure, proximity to walls or buildings (thermal mass), low-lying areas where cold air collects, and proximity to large bodies of water which moderate temperatures.
Soil pH is measured on a scale from 0 (strongly acidic) to 14 (strongly alkaline), with 7.0 being neutral. Most vegetables thrive in a slightly acidic to neutral range of 6.0–7.0. pH affects nutrient availability: even if nutrients are present in the soil, plants cannot absorb them if pH is outside their preferred range.
| pH Range | Soil Type | Best For | Common Fix |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4.5 – 5.5 | Strongly acidic | Blueberries, azaleas | Add lime to raise pH |
| 5.5 – 6.0 | Moderately acidic | Potatoes, strawberries, rhubarb | Add lime gradually |
| 6.0 – 7.0 | Slightly acidic–neutral | Most vegetables and herbs | Ideal range — maintain with compost |
| 7.0 – 7.5 | Slightly alkaline | Brassicas, asparagus, spinach | Add sulphur or acidic compost |
| 7.5+ | Alkaline/Chalky | Limited crops, lavender | Add sulphur, use raised beds with amended soil |
Soil texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles. Sandy soil drains quickly but loses nutrients fast and dries out. Clay soil holds moisture and nutrients well but can become compacted, waterlogged, and slow to warm in spring. Loam — the ideal growing medium — is a balanced mixture of all three particle types, offering good drainage, moisture retention, and nutrient holding capacity.
Improving soil structure is always done with organic matter: compost, aged manure, leaf mould, and cover crops all build structure over time. In most garden situations, adding 5–10 cm (2–4 inches) of compost and working it into the top 20–30 cm (8–12 inches) of soil each season will transform even poor soil within 2–3 years.
Plants require three primary macronutrients: Nitrogen (N) for leaf and stem growth; Phosphorus (P) for root development, flowering, and fruit set; and Potassium (K) for overall plant vigour, disease resistance, and fruit quality. Secondary nutrients include calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. Micronutrients such as iron, manganese, boron, and zinc are needed in tiny quantities but are essential for enzyme function and overall health.
Healthy soil is teeming with life — bacteria, fungi, earthworms, nematodes, and insects all play roles in breaking down organic matter, cycling nutrients, and maintaining soil structure. Every time you dig or till, you disrupt these communities. The no-dig or minimal-dig approach, popularised by Charles Dowding, maintains soil structure and reduces weed germination by not bringing dormant weed seeds to the surface.
Among the most rewarding crops for home gardeners worldwide — fast-growing, nutritious, and productive in small spaces.
Lettuce is a cool-season crop that performs best at temperatures between 7°C and 21°C (45–70°F). It bolts (goes to seed) rapidly in hot weather, making timing critical. It can be grown year-round in many climates with proper timing and variety selection.
Spring planting: Direct sow as soon as soil can be worked, typically late March to May. Lettuce seed germinates in soil as cold as 2°C (35°F). Start indoors 4–6 weeks before last frost for transplants. Fall planting: Sow 6–8 weeks before first fall frost (typically July–August) for a second harvest. Use cold-tolerant varieties like 'Winter Density' or 'Arctic King'. Winter growing: In cold frames or unheated high tunnels, lettuce can survive Canadian winters if established before hard freezes. Zone 4–5 gardeners with row covers can extend harvest to December.
Varieties recommended: 'Black Seeded Simpson' (loose-leaf, fast), 'Buttercrunch' (butterhead, heat-tolerant), 'Romaine/Cos' (upright, crisp), 'Red Sails' (loose-leaf, ornamental). Succession sow every 2–3 weeks for continuous harvest.
Primary season: Fall through spring — September to April — is prime lettuce time. Summers are too hot. In Zone 8–9, plant September–March. In Zone 10 (Southern Florida, coastal Southern California), plant October–February. Shade cloth (30–40% shade) can extend the season by 3–4 weeks in warmer zones. In desert Southwest (Arizona, New Mexico), morning sun and afternoon shade locations are ideal.
Outdoor season: March to October. Sow under cover (cold frame or greenhouse) February–March; transplant outdoors April–May. Direct sow outdoors April–August. Winter growing is possible under glass or in cold frames — use 'Winter Density', 'Valdai', or 'Artic King'. In mild UK regions (Cornwall, Western Ireland), outdoor lettuce may survive mild winters with fleece protection.
Cool regions (Victoria, Tasmania, South Island NZ): Plant August–November (spring) and February–April (autumn). Warm regions (Queensland, NSW coast, North Island NZ): Plant April–September (cool season). Year-round in tropical north: Grow during dry season only (April–September) as wet season humidity causes disease.
South Africa (Cape Region): Plant March–August (cool season). Excellent lettuce country in the Western Cape. East Africa highlands (Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania): High altitude moderates temperatures — year-round growing possible. Plant in slightly cooler months. North Africa (Morocco, Egypt): October–March winter season growing. West Africa: Cool dry season only (November–February in the savannah zone).
Japan & Korea: Spring (March–May) and autumn (September–November) seasons. China: Varies by region — cool season crops in spring and autumn in temperate zones; year-round in highland regions like Yunnan. India: Cool-season crop in north India (October–February); highland areas like Kashmir, Himachal, Uttarakhand, and the Nilgiris year-round. Southeast Asia: Challenging — grow in highlands (Cameron Highlands Malaysia, Dalat Vietnam) or in air-conditioned indoor systems in lowlands.
Common Pests & Diseases: Aphids (check undersides of leaves, treat with insecticidal soap), slugs and snails (use iron phosphate bait, beer traps, copper tape), downy mildew (ensure airflow, avoid wetting leaves), tipburn (calcium deficiency, improve watering consistency), lettuce root aphid (rotate crops, destroy affected plants).
Kale is one of the hardiest vegetables known, improving in flavour after frost as cold temperatures convert starches to sugars. It is a cold-season powerhouse that can be harvested year-round in many temperate climates. In Canada and northern USA, kale can survive Zone 3–4 winters with minimal protection. In the UK and Northern Europe, kale is a traditional winter staple. In Australia and New Zealand, grow through autumn and winter. In tropical highlands, grow during cooler months.
Key varieties: 'Lacinato/Dinosaur' (flat, dark leaves, Italian origin, excellent flavour), 'Curly Scotch' (traditional, very hardy), 'Red Russian' (most tender, earliest, slightly less hardy), 'Siberian' (extremely cold-hardy, excellent for Zones 2–3), 'Redbor' (ornamental and edible, purple-red). Harvest outer leaves progressively from the bottom of the plant, leaving the growing tip intact for continued production.
Spinach is one of the fastest cool-season crops available. It requires longer day lengths to bolt, making spring and autumn the ideal windows. In Northern Canada and Russia (Zone 2–4), plant as soon as soil thaws in spring (April–May) and again in August for fall. In UK and Europe, sow March–May and August–October; overwinter under cover. In the Southern USA, plant October–March. In India, plant October–February in northern plains; year-round in highland areas. In Australia/NZ, plant March–August in cool to temperate regions.
Bolting (premature flowering) is triggered by long days and heat. Select slow-bolting varieties like 'Bloomsdale Long Standing', 'Space F1', or 'Regiment F1' for better summer tolerance. New Zealand spinach (Tetragonia tetragonioides) is not true spinach but a heat-tolerant alternative for warm climates.
Carrots, beets, radishes, turnips, parsnips and potatoes — the underground workhorses of any productive garden.
Carrots are direct-sown only — they do not transplant well. The key to success is loose, deep, stone-free soil. In heavy clay, grow short or round-rooted varieties ('Chantenay', 'Danvers', 'Parisian') or use deep raised beds.
Canada & Northern USA: Sow April–July outdoors. In Zone 3–4, wait until soil reaches at least 7°C (45°F). Successive sowings every 3 weeks give harvests from July through October. Carrots left in the ground after first frost develop sweeter flavour — mulch heavily with straw to extend harvest into December in Zones 5+.
UK & Europe: Sow under cover (cold frame, polytunnel) February–March; outdoor sowing April–July. Autumn sowings under cover (August–September) give winter harvests. Protect from carrot fly with fine mesh netting (Enviromesh) — carrot flies cannot fly higher than 60 cm (24 inches), so a physical barrier is effective.
Australia & NZ: Sow March–August in southern temperate regions. In Queensland and northern Australia, sow April–July during the cooler months. In NZ, plant February–June for winter harvests.
India & South Asia: October–February in northern plains (Punjab, Haryana, UP). Year-round in hill stations (Shimla, Ooty, Kodaikanal). Preferred varieties in India include 'Pusa Kesar' and 'Nantes' types.
Common problems: Forked roots (caused by stones, manure, or root obstruction — ensure deep loose soil). Green shoulders (cover exposed tops with soil or mulch). Carrot fly maggots (use fine mesh barriers). Cavity spot (caused by calcium deficiency and irregular watering — maintain consistent moisture). Cracking (sudden heavy rain after dry period — mulch and irrigate consistently).
Potatoes are grown from "seed potatoes" (small tubers) rather than true botanical seeds. They require cool weather to set tubers but warm weather to grow foliage. Chitting (pre-sprouting seed potatoes in a cool, light location for 4–6 weeks before planting) gives a head start and is standard practice in the UK and Canada.
Canada: Plant after last frost risk has passed — typically mid-April in Zone 5–6, mid-May in Zone 3–4. Hilling (mounding soil around stems) is critical to prevent green potatoes and increase yield. Harvest early varieties in 70–80 days; maincrop varieties in 100–120 days. In short-season areas (Zone 2–3), use early varieties like 'Yukon Gold', 'Norland', or 'Warba'.
UK & Ireland: First earlies planted late March (often on St. Patrick's Day, March 17th, as a traditional marker); second earlies April; maincrop April–early May. Harvest first earlies June–July; maincrop August–October. Most important: ensure seed potatoes are disease-certified.
Southern hemisphere spring planting: Plant September–October in cool temperate areas. Second crop possible in January–February in milder regions for Christmas new potatoes.
Tropics and subtropics: Grown in cool dry seasons or at altitude. In India: Plains (UP, Punjab) — October–December planting; Hills (Shimla) — March–April. In the Philippines and Indonesia: highland areas year-round. Kenya: all year in highland cool zones (above 1,800m).
Beetroot is a versatile cool-season crop that tolerates light frost. Sow directly outdoors 4–6 weeks before last frost. Each beet "seed" is actually a fruit containing 2–4 seeds — thin to the strongest seedling at 5 cm (2 inches) tall. Young thinnings are edible — add to salads. Both the roots and leaves are edible. For continuous harvest, sow every 3–4 weeks from spring through mid-summer. In the UK, sow April–July outdoors. In Canada, sow May–June. In Australia/NZ, sow February–May for winter harvest.
Broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale, kohlrabi — nutritionally dense, globally important crops.
Broccoli is a heavy feeding cool-season crop that requires fertile soil and consistent moisture. It is more sensitive to heat than most brassicas — mature heads begin to yellow and bolt rapidly when temperatures exceed 27°C (80°F).
Canada & Northern USA: Start indoors 6–8 weeks before last frost (February–March in Zone 5). Transplant to garden 2–4 weeks before last frost — broccoli tolerates light frost once established. For fall crop, direct sow or start transplants 10–12 weeks before first fall frost (plant outdoors in June–July). Key challenge: timing to avoid both late spring frosts and summer heat.
UK & Europe: Two main crops — spring heading types sown in autumn and overwintered (hardy); summer/autumn types sown indoors February–March, planted out May–June. Calabrese (the type most called "broccoli" in shops) sown April–June for July–October harvest. Purple sprouting broccoli is the traditional UK winter crop — sow May–June for harvest February–April the following year.
Club root is the most serious brassica disease worldwide — a soil-borne slime mould causing swollen, distorted roots. Prevent by: maintaining soil pH above 7.0 (lime if needed), practising long crop rotations (minimum 4 years), never bringing in soil or transplants from affected areas, using raised beds with fresh compost.
Never grow brassicas (broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale, radish, turnip, kohlrabi) in the same ground more than once every 3–4 years. Failure to rotate invites club root, cabbage root fly, and other persistent soil-borne problems that can render a plot unusable for brassicas permanently.
Tomatoes, peppers, aubergines (eggplant), and ground cherries — warm-season crops that reward the patient gardener.
Tomatoes are the world's most popular home-grown vegetable. They are frost-tender, warmth-loving plants that require careful timing and good growing conditions. There are two main growth habits: determinate (bush) varieties produce all their fruit in a defined period and require little pruning — ideal for short-season climates and canning; indeterminate (cordon/vining) varieties continue growing and producing until killed by frost — higher yield but require staking, tying, and regular removal of side shoots (suckers).
Canada (Zones 3–6): Start seeds indoors under grow lights 6–8 weeks before last frost date (typically February–April depending on zone). Do not transplant outdoors until night temperatures are consistently above 10°C (50°F) and all frost risk has passed. Use Wall-O-Waters or frost protection fabric to get plants out 2–3 weeks earlier. Mulch heavily to retain soil warmth. In Zone 3 (northern Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba), use only early-maturing varieties (65 days or less): 'Sub Arctic Plenty', 'Polar Beauty', 'Bush Early Girl', 'Glacier', or 'Siletz'. In Zone 5–6 (Southern Ontario, BC Interior), wider variety selection is possible — 'Brandywine', 'San Marzano', 'Cherokee Purple', 'Sungold'.
UK & Northern Europe: Almost all UK tomatoes require greenhouse, polytunnel, or at minimum a very sheltered south-facing wall for outdoor growing. Start seeds indoors under lights in late February–March. Transplant into growing position (greenhouse or outdoors) after last frost — typically late May in the UK. Outdoor growing is most reliable in Southern England; Scotland and northern England are borderline without protection. Best outdoor UK varieties: 'Gardeners Delight', 'Tumbling Tom', 'Sub Arctic Plenty'. Best indoor UK varieties: 'Alicante', 'Ailsa Craig', 'Moneymaker', 'Black Cherry'.
Southern USA (Zones 7–10): Two seasons possible. Spring crop: transplant February–April (varies by zone). Fall crop: start seeds late June–July, transplant August–September. Summer is typically too hot for fruit set in most of the South — tomatoes drop flowers when temperatures exceed 35°C (95°F) during the day or 21°C (70°F) at night.
Australia & NZ: Plant outdoors September–November (spring) in cool and temperate regions. In Queensland and tropical north, plant March–May (autumn) as summer is too hot and humid. Best varieties for hot humid climates: heat-tolerant types like 'Grosse Lisse', 'Tommy Toe', 'Apollo', and disease-resistant F1 hybrids.
India: October–January in northern plains; June–August in hills. Maharashtra and Karnataka: October–December. Tamil Nadu: June–August (hills) and October–January (plains). Use disease-resistant varieties in humid conditions — 'Pusa Ruby', 'Arka Vikas', 'CO-3'.
East Africa: Year-round production possible in highland zones (Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia above 1,500m). In lowlands: dry cool season planting only. Kenya is a major commercial tomato producer — 'Money Maker', 'Kilele F1', 'Prostar F1' are common.
Tomato problems reference: Blossom end rot (calcium deficiency/irregular watering — mulch and water consistently); blight (early and late — use blight-resistant varieties, avoid overhead watering, remove affected foliage immediately); blossom drop (temperature extremes); splitting (irregular watering — mulch); hornworms (hand-pick or use Bt spray); whitefly (yellow sticky traps, insecticidal soap); catfacing (cold damage during fruit set — plant later).
Peppers require more heat than tomatoes and a longer growing season. In short-season climates, choose early-maturing varieties and use heat-retaining techniques aggressively. Start seeds 8–10 weeks before last frost. Use heat mats for germination (peppers germinate poorly below 21°C / 70°F). Use fleece row covers and black plastic mulch to warm soil. In Canada, focus on sweet bell peppers and jalapeños with 70–80 day maturity. Hot peppers (habanero, ghost pepper, Carolina Reaper) need 90–120 days and are challenging in short-season zones. In the UK, peppers are almost exclusively a greenhouse/polytunnel crop except in the warmest southern counties. In tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, peppers are a year-round staple crop — reduce watering and harvest during dry seasons for best flavour concentration.
Among the most important food crops in human history — nitrogen-fixing, protein-rich, globally adaptable.
Beans are warm-season crops that should only be sown outdoors after all frost danger has passed and soil temperature reaches at least 15°C (60°F). Beans fix atmospheric nitrogen through root nodules in symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria — do not fertilise with high nitrogen, as this encourages leaf at the expense of pods.
Canada: Sow late May–June. Succession sow every 2–3 weeks for continuous harvest. French (bush) beans are the best choice for short seasons (50–65 days). In Zone 3–4, try 'Provider', 'Contender', or 'Masai'. Runner beans (75–80 days) are possible in Zone 5+ with early planting. Inoculate seed with Rhizobium bacteria if growing beans for the first time in a bed — significant yield improvement in un-inoculated soils.
UK & Europe: Runner beans are a traditional British garden staple. Sow indoors in April in individual pots; transplant after last frost (late May–June). Direct sow outdoors May–June. French beans: direct sow May–July. Harvest daily to encourage continued production — leaving mature pods on plants stops flowering.
Tropics (Southeast Asia, Africa, Central America): Yard-long beans (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) are better adapted to tropical heat and humidity than common beans. Grow year-round in tropical climates. Cowpeas/black-eyed peas are the primary bean crop of sub-Saharan Africa — heat and drought tolerant.
Peas are cool-season crops that must be grown in spring or autumn. Unlike beans, peas can be sown in cold soil (as low as 4°C / 40°F) and tolerate light frost once established. In Canada, sow as soon as soil can be worked in spring — March to May depending on zone. Peas will not set pods in temperatures above 27°C (80°F). In the UK, sow February–June outdoors; hardy autumn varieties ('Autumn Bliss') sown in October–November for overwintering. In Australia, sow March–July in temperate regions. Provide trellis or support even for dwarf varieties — all peas climb. Sugar snap types ('Sugar Snap', 'Cascadia') are among the most productive and easiest to grow; the entire pod is eaten at the stage between snow pea and garden pea development.
Space-hungry, warmth-loving crops that produce abundantly when given the right conditions.
Cucumbers are frost-tender, heat-loving plants that grow rapidly in warm conditions. They can be grown in two main ways: vining types trained vertically on a trellis (space-efficient, better airflow, less disease), or bush types left to sprawl on the ground (easier, no support needed).
In Canada and northern climates, start seeds indoors 3–4 weeks before last frost. Do not start too early — cucumbers grow so fast that large root-bound transplants fare worse than smaller ones. Direct sow is possible in Zone 5+ when soil is reliably warm. Provide consistent moisture — irregular watering causes bitter fruits. In the UK, outdoor cucumbers are challenging — 'Bush Champion' and 'Marketmore' are the most reliable; greenhouse types include 'Telegraph' and 'Carmen F1' (all-female varieties).
In tropical regions (Southeast Asia, East Africa, India), cucumbers are year-round crops. Grow during dry season in humid tropics to reduce fungal disease pressure. Powdery mildew is the primary disease concern — choose resistant varieties and ensure good airflow.
Pumpkins and winter squash need a long season — 90–120 days — and substantial space. In Canada, start indoors 3–4 weeks before last frost to gain enough growing time. In Zone 3 (90-day growing season), use compact varieties like 'Delicata', 'Sweet Dumpling', or 'Sunshine'. Direct sow in Zone 6+ when soil is warm. Pumpkins are traditionally associated with North American Thanksgiving culture (and Halloween) — major commercial growing regions include Southern Ontario, parts of New England, and the Great Lakes region of the USA. In tropical regions, pumpkins and squash (including the closely related butternut) are grown year-round as key staple crops in Southeast Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and South Asia.
The flavour foundations of world cuisine — adapted to virtually every climate on Earth.
Onion bulb development is triggered by day length — this is the most critical factor in variety selection. Long-day varieties (14–16 hours) are for northern latitudes (Canada, northern USA, UK, Scandinavia) — they begin bulbing when summer days are long. Short-day varieties (10–12 hours) are for southern latitudes (southern USA, Mexico, India, tropics) — they begin bulbing in the shorter days of autumn/winter. Intermediate/day-neutral varieties work across a wider range of latitudes.
Using the wrong day-length type in the wrong location produces scallions (never bulbing) or bolts immediately without making a bulb. This is the most common onion failure.
Canada & Northern USA (long-day varieties): Start seeds indoors 10–12 weeks before last frost (January–February). Transplant outdoors 4–6 weeks before last frost. Onion sets (small bulbs) are an easier option — plant as soon as soil can be worked in spring. Recommended: 'Copra', 'Patterson', 'Cortland', 'Mars' (red), 'Walla Walla' (sweet).
UK & Northern Europe: Traditional method is autumn planting of over-wintering onion sets (September–October) for July harvest. Spring sets planted March–April harvest August–September. From seed: sow January–February under glass for transplanting March–April.
Garlic (Allium sativum): Planted as cloves in autumn (October–November in Canada and UK) for harvest the following summer (July–August). Hardneck types for cold climates (Canada, northern USA, UK); softneck types for warmer climates and longer storage. In the southern hemisphere, plant March–April for December harvest. In tropical regions, garlic can be grown in highland areas during cool season but does not perform well in true tropical lowlands.
From basil to lavender, herbs are among the most rewarding and accessible plants for any gardener worldwide.
| Herb | Type | Zones | Start Indoors | Direct Sow | Days to Harvest | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Basil | Annual | All (warm season) | 6–8 wks before last frost | After last frost | 30–60 days | Loves heat. Pinch flowers to extend harvest. Cannot tolerate cold. |
| Cilantro | Annual | All (cool season) | Not recommended | Early spring or fall | 21–28 days (leaves) | Bolts in heat. Succession sow every 2 weeks. |
| Dill | Annual | All zones | Not recommended | Early spring, succession | 40–60 days | Direct sow only. Reseeds freely. |
| Parsley | Biennial | Zones 2–11 | 10–12 weeks before LF | After last frost | 70–90 days | Slow to germinate. Soak seed 24h before sowing. |
| Oregano | Perennial | Zones 4–11 | 8–10 weeks before LF | Spring or fall | 90 days (first year) | Harvest just before flowering for strongest flavour. |
| Thyme | Perennial | Zones 4–9 | 8–10 weeks before LF | Spring | 90 days (first year) | Drought tolerant once established. |
| Rosemary | Perennial | Zones 6–11 | 12–16 weeks before LF | Spring (unreliable) | Second season | Slow from seed. Better from cuttings. Not hardy in Zone 4–5. |
| Sage | Perennial | Zones 4–8 | 8–10 weeks before LF | Spring | 75 days (first year) | Prefers well-drained soil. Very drought tolerant. |
| Lavender | Perennial | Zones 5–9 | 10–12 weeks before LF | Spring (slow) | Second season | Alkaline soil preferred. Excellent bee plant. |
| Chamomile | Annual/Perennial | Zones 3–9 | 4–6 weeks before LF | Spring or fall | 60–65 days | German (annual) vs Roman (perennial). Self-seeds prolifically. |
| Mint | Perennial | Zones 3–8 | 8–10 weeks before LF | Spring | 90 days (first year) | Invasive — grow in containers or with root barriers. |
| Lemon Balm | Perennial | Zones 3–7 | 8–10 weeks before LF | Spring | 70–80 days | Invasive tendencies. Lemon scent. Excellent bee plant. |
| Echinacea | Perennial | Zones 3–9 | 8–10 weeks before LF | Fall (stratification) | Second year | Native to North American prairies. Medicinal immune support. |
| Catnip | Perennial | Zones 3–9 | 6–8 weeks before LF | Spring or fall | 60–75 days | Vigorous — may need containment. Medicinal: mild sedative. |
| Cumin | Annual | Zones 5–10 | 4–6 weeks before LF | After last frost | 120 days | Long warm season needed. Best in hot dry climates. |
| Fennel | Perennial | Zones 4–9 | Not recommended | Spring direct sow | 65 days (leaves) | Allelopathic — do not plant near tomatoes or peppers. |
| Lemongrass | Tropical perennial | Zones 9–11 | 8–10 weeks before LF | After last frost | Second season | Can grow as annual in Zones 6–8 or bring indoors in winter. |
| Tarragon | Perennial | Zones 4–8 | French type from cuttings only | Russian type by seed | Second season | French tarragon (superior flavour) must be propagated vegetatively. |
Many European herbs (rosemary, thyme, oregano) struggle in tropical heat and humidity. Instead, focus on heat-adapted herbs: lemongrass, basil (Thai basil thrives in heat), turmeric, ginger, kaffir lime leaf, galangal, and pandan. These are staples of Southeast Asian and Indian cuisine and thrive in tropical gardens. In India and Southeast Asia, Tulsi (Holy Basil, Ocimum tenuiflorum) is among the most important medicinal herbs — extremely easy to grow year-round.
Apple, pear, peach, cherry, plum — long-term investments that reward patience with decades of harvests.
Growing fruit trees from seed is a long-term endeavour — most take 3–10 years to produce their first crop. However, the rewards are extraordinary: a single well-cared-for apple tree can produce for 50–100 years, providing hundreds of kilograms of fruit annually at peak production. Most commercial fruit trees are grafted onto rootstocks to control size and ensure true-to-type fruit; growing from seed typically gives variable results as most fruit trees are not true from seed. Despite this, seed-grown rootstocks are valuable and seed growing is an excellent educational and long-term project.
| Fruit Tree | Hardiness Zones | Chill Hours Needed | Years to First Fruit | Self-Fertile? | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apple | Zones 3–8 | 500–1,000 hrs below 7°C | 3–5 years (grafted) | No (most) | Needs 2 compatible varieties for pollination |
| Peach | Zones 4–9 | 600–900 hrs | 2–4 years | Yes (most) | Most cold-hardy peach: 'Reliance', 'Contender' |
| Pear | Zones 3–8 | 600–900 hrs | 4–6 years | No (most) | Asian pears: self-fertile, warmer zones |
| Cherry (sweet) | Zones 5–7 | 800–1,200 hrs | 4–7 years | No (most) | Self-fertile varieties: 'Stella', 'Sweetheart', 'Lapins' |
| Cherry (sour/pie) | Zones 4–8 | 400–700 hrs | 3–5 years | Yes | 'Montmorency' is standard; hardier than sweet |
| Plum (European) | Zones 4–8 | 700–1,000 hrs | 3–6 years | Varies | 'Stanley', 'Damson' are self-fertile |
| Plum (Japanese) | Zones 5–9 | 500–900 hrs | 3–5 years | Usually no | Better suited to warmer climates than European types |
| Apricot | Zones 5–8 | 300–900 hrs | 3–5 years | Yes (most) | Late frosts during bloom are the primary challenge |
Plant bare-root trees when dormant (late autumn to early spring — October–March in northern hemisphere). Container-grown trees can be planted year-round but spring and autumn are best. Dig a hole wider than deep — the common mistake is digging a narrow, deep hole that restricts root spread. The bud union (the swollen point near the base) must sit above soil level. Never plant in a frost pocket — cold air flows downhill and collects in low points, damaging blossoms in spring. Stake newly planted trees for 2 years to prevent wind-rock.
Most temperate fruit trees require a certain number of "chill hours" — hours where temperatures are between 0°C and 7°C (32–45°F) — during winter dormancy in order to flower and fruit properly the following season. This is why apples and cherries cannot be grown in tropical climates without special low-chill varieties. In climates warming due to climate change, growers in traditionally adequate chill zones (Southern UK, Pacific Northwest, Mediterranean) are beginning to experience insufficient chill, making variety selection increasingly important. Low-chill varieties have been developed for warmer climates: 'Anna' apple (low chill), 'Flordaprince' peach (low chill), and 'Tropic Sweet' peach (very low chill, suitable for Florida and South Texas).
Avocado, mango, papaya, citrus, banana, fig — growing the world's most exotic fruits from seed.
For the complete avocado growing guide, see the How to Grow an Avocado Tree from Seed — Complete 2026 Guide page on this site. Avocados are among the most rewarding but most patience-testing plants a gardener can attempt. For full outdoor growing in Canada and most of the USA, avocados must be treated as houseplants or greenhouse plants.
The king of tropical fruits, mango is one of the most widely grown fruit trees in tropical Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Mangos require a distinctly dry season to trigger flowering — the popular myth that they need cold nights is partly a function of this dry season effect. In tropical regions with wet and dry seasons (India, Southeast Asia, West Africa, the Caribbean, Central America), mangos can be grown from seed quite successfully. Seeds sprout readily when planted fresh (do not let them dry out). From seed, trees take 5–8 years to fruit; grafted varieties produce in 2–4 years. Mango varieties include polyembryonic types (common in Southeast Asia and India) where seeds contain multiple embryos that produce true-to-type plants, and monoembryonic types (most Floridian/Caribbean varieties) that produce variable seedlings.
Papaya is among the fastest tropical fruits — flowering within 6–12 months of planting from seed and fruiting within a year. It is a short-lived perennial (3–5 years typically) grown as an annual in many regions. Papaya needs full sun, excellent drainage, and protection from frost and waterlogging (the two most common causes of failure). In tropical regions, plant at the start of the rainy season. In subtropical regions (South Florida, coastal Southern California, Mediterranean, North Queensland), plant in spring after any frost risk. Papaya is dioecious — separate male and female plants — though hermaphrodite varieties exist (most commercial types). To ensure fruiting, plant several seeds and thin to the strongest plants once sex is determined.
Citrus fruits span a wide climate range. Lemons and limes are the least cold-tolerant; mandarins and navels are the most cold-hardy. In Zone 8, Meyer lemons and Owari mandarins can succeed with wall protection. In Zone 9–10, most citrus thrives outdoors. In cooler climates (UK, Canada, northern USA), citrus makes an excellent container plant — move outdoors in summer, bring indoors before first frost. Key tip: most citrus seeds produce polyembryonic seedlings (multiple plants from one seed, most true to type). Plants from seed take 5–15 years to fruit. For faster fruiting in containers, use grafted trees.
Figs are more cold-hardy than most tropical fruits — some varieties survive to Zone 6 with protection. In Canada, figs can be grown in large containers brought indoors for winter, or in Zone 6–7 areas with south-facing wall protection and winter mulching. 'Brown Turkey' and 'Chicago Hardy' are the most cold-tolerant varieties. In the UK, figs grow surprisingly well against south-facing walls — traditional English fig cultivation involves root-restricting pits. Mediterranean regions produce figs prolifically as standard garden trees. In the tropics and subtropics, figs grow vigorously year-round.
Blueberries, raspberries, strawberries, elderberries, gooseberries — some of the most productive garden plants available.
| Berry | Zones | Soil pH | Years to Full Production | Key Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blueberry | Zones 3–7 (highbush); 3–6 (lowbush) | 4.5 – 5.5 (acidic) | 3–4 years | Must acidify soil. Needs 2+ varieties for cross-pollination. Bird netting essential at harvest time. |
| Raspberry | Zones 3–9 | 5.5 – 6.5 | 2 years | Summer-bearing (one crop) or autumn-bearing (everbearing, two crops). Needs canes cut back after fruiting season. |
| Blackberry | Zones 5–9 | 5.5 – 7.0 | 2 years | Thorned or thornless varieties. More vigorous and less cold-hardy than raspberries. Cut back floricanes after harvest. |
| Strawberry | Zones 3–10 | 5.5 – 6.5 | Year 1 (remove first flowers) | June-bearing (one large crop), everbearing (two crops), day-neutral (continuous). Replace plants every 3–4 years. |
| Elderberry | Zones 3–8 | 5.5 – 6.5 | 2–3 years | Vigorous and disease-resistant. Needs 2 plants for best pollination. Berries must be cooked before eating. |
| Gooseberry | Zones 3–6 | 6.0 – 6.5 | 2–3 years | Underused North American fruit. Extremely productive. American types more mildew-resistant than European. |
| Currant (red/black) | Zones 3–6 | 6.0 – 6.5 | 2–3 years | Black currants are prohibited in some US states (pine blister rust host). Check local regulations. |
| Honeyberry/Haskap | Zones 2–6 | 6.0 – 7.0 | 2–3 years | Extremely cold-hardy (to Zone 2). Early-ripening — first fruit of the year in northern gardens. Increasingly popular in Canada. |
Strawberry from seed: Alpine strawberries ('Alexandria', 'Mignonette') grow easily from seed — start indoors 8–10 weeks before last frost, surface sow and press into moist medium (do not cover). Germination takes 14–21 days at 18–21°C. Standard garden strawberries are almost always started from runners (daughter plants from established crowns), not seed — seedlings are slower and variable.
Blueberry growing in Canada: Lowbush blueberries (the wild type covering much of northern Canada) are incredibly cold-hardy and productive. Highbush varieties produce larger berries but require more attention to soil acidification. In Atlantic Canada and Quebec, wild blueberry management (clearing competing vegetation, burning every 2–3 years to stimulate new growth) is a centuries-old practice among Indigenous communities and continues as a significant agricultural industry.
Long-lived, productive vines that transform fences, pergolas, and arbours into food-producing features.
Grapes are among the most widely cultivated plants in human history. European wine grapes (Vitis vinifera) are generally suited to Zones 5–9 with specific climate requirements — warm dry summers and cold winters are ideal. In Canada, cold-hardy hybrid varieties have been developed to extend grape production into Zones 3–5: 'Marquette', 'Frontenac', 'La Crescent', 'Vandal-Cliche' and 'Louise Swenson' are all bred for Canadian winters. The Okanagan Valley (BC), Niagara Peninsula (Ontario), and Prince Edward County (Ontario) are Canada's primary wine grape regions. In the UK, English wine production has expanded significantly due to warming summers — Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are now commercially viable in southern England. Growing grapes from seed produces variable plants and is used only for breeding; almost all grape cultivation uses vegetative propagation (cuttings or grafted vines).
Plant dormant canes in early spring. Prune annually in late winter/early spring when dormant. The two main training systems are the Guyot system (most common in wine production — single or double cane trained horizontally) and the pergola/overhead system (most common in home gardens).
Hardy kiwi (Actinidia arguta) produces small, grape-sized smooth-skinned kiwis and is surprisingly cold-hardy — to Zone 3 in some cases. The vines are vigorous, long-lived (decades), and once established are remarkably productive. They require a male and female plant for fruiting (ratio of 1 male to 6–8 females). In Canada, hardy kiwi is a genuinely viable long-term food garden plant. In the UK, it can be grown as a south-facing wall climber. Fuzzy kiwi (the supermarket type) requires Zones 7–9 minimum and a long warm growing season — mainly suitable for Pacific Northwest USA, mild UK, New Zealand, and Mediterranean regions.
Hops are primarily grown for brewing but are also ornamental and medicinal. They are herbaceous perennials that die back to the ground in winter (hardy to Zone 4) and regrow rapidly — vines can reach 5–7 metres (15–20 feet) in a single season. Plants are dioecious — only female plants produce hop cones (lupulin). Best planted from rhizomes (root divisions) rather than seed. In Canada, hops can be grown successfully from Zone 4 northward. In the UK, Kent is the traditional hop-growing county — the hop gardens of Kent are a cultural landscape. Harvest in late summer (August–September) when cones are papery and fragrant but not browning.
Sunflowers, marigolds, nasturtiums, cosmos — edible, ornamental, and essential for pollinator support.
Companion planting is the practice of growing different plants in proximity for mutual benefit. The most well-known example is the "Three Sisters" — corn, beans, and squash grown together as was practised by Indigenous North American peoples for millennia. The corn provides a trellis for beans; beans fix nitrogen for all three plants; squash shades the ground, retaining moisture and suppressing weeds. This interplanting system is now understood to be a highly sophisticated and productive agricultural approach validated by modern science.
| Flower | Type | Zones | Days to Bloom | Companion Benefits | World Growing Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marigold (Tagetes) | Annual | All zones | 45–60 days | Repels nematodes, aphids, whitefly; attracts pollinators | Grow as annual worldwide. Hugely popular in India (Tagetes erecta) for religious offerings. Easy to save seed. |
| Nasturtium | Annual | All zones | 35–52 days | Trap crop for aphids; deters whitefly; edible flowers and leaves | Entire plant is edible. Very easy to grow. Prefers poor soil. Self-seeds in mild climates. |
| Sunflower | Annual | All zones (warm season) | 70–100 days | Attracts pollinators and beneficial insects; edible seeds | Sunflowers originated in North America. Major commercial crop in Ukraine, Russia, Argentina. Grows worldwide as annual in warm season. |
| Cosmos | Annual | All zones (warm season) | 50–70 days | Attracts pollinators and parasitic wasps that control pests | Very easy, fast, self-seeds. Direct sow after last frost. |
| Borage | Annual | All zones | 50–60 days | Repels tomato hornworm; attracts bees; edible flowers | Self-seeds prolifically. Blue star-shaped flowers attractive to bumblebees. |
| Calendula | Annual | All zones (cool season) | 45–60 days | Attracts beneficial insects; edible flowers; medicinal skin healing | Hardy — tolerates frost. Grow spring and autumn in hot climates. Self-seeds. |
| Echinacea (Coneflower) | Perennial | Zones 3–9 | Second year | Attracts native bees; medicinal immune support | Native to North American prairies. Cold-stratification needed for seeds. |
| Milkweed | Perennial | Zones 3–9 | Second year | Essential host plant for monarch butterfly | Critical for monarch conservation. Multiple species — common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), butterfly weed (A. tuberosa). |
| Dandelion | Perennial | Zones 3–10 | First year | Deep taproot mines nutrients; early pollen/nectar for bees | Often unjustly maligned. Entirely edible plant. Important early-season bee forage worldwide. |
| Lupine | Annual/Perennial | Zones 3–7 | Second year (perennial) | Nitrogen fixer; attracts pollinators | Hardy. Beautiful spike flowers. Multiple species. |
The fastest food you can grow — harvest in days, not months. Nutritionally dense, grown indoors anywhere in the world.
Sprouts and microgreens can be grown anywhere in the world at any time of year — no outdoor space, no soil, no weather concerns. They represent the purest expression of "grow your own food" available to anyone with a windowsill. They are also among the most nutritionally dense foods available — some microgreens have been shown to contain 4–40 times the nutrient density of their mature counterparts.
Sprouting requires only seeds, a jar, and water. Rinse seeds in clean water twice daily. Keep in indirect light. Harvest in 2–7 days depending on the seed. Best sprouting seeds: alfalfa (3–5 days, mild flavour), broccoli (4–6 days, high in sulforaphane), radish (3–4 days, spicy), mung bean (4–5 days, the classic bean sprout), fenugreek (3–4 days, slightly bitter, used in Indian cuisine), lentil (3–4 days, nutty, high protein), chickpea/garbanzo (3–4 days, robust).
Food safety note: Sprouts should be kept clean and rinsed thoroughly. Humid sprouting conditions can allow bacterial growth — always use clean equipment and fresh water. Immunocompromised individuals should cook sprouts before eating.
Microgreens are grown in shallow trays of soil or coco coir to the first true-leaf stage (7–21 days). They deliver full flavour of the mature plant in miniature form and are widely used in restaurants and home kitchens worldwide.
| Microgreen | Sow Density | Days to Harvest | Flavour | Nutrition Highlights |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sunflower | High | 10–14 days | Nutty, crisp | High protein, vitamin E |
| Pea shoot | High | 12–18 days | Sweet, delicate | Vitamins A, C, K |
| Radish | Medium | 6–10 days | Spicy, peppery | Vitamin C, folate |
| Broccoli | Medium | 8–12 days | Mild brassica | High sulforaphane (anti-cancer) |
| Beet | Low | 10–14 days | Earthy, sweet | Betalains, iron |
| Basil | Medium | 14–21 days | Intense basil | Antioxidants, vitamin K |
| Corn | High | 10–14 days | Sweet, corn flavour | Carotenoids |
| Wheatgrass | Very high | 7–10 days | Grassy, intense | Chlorophyll, iron, B vitamins |
Clover, buckwheat, vetch, rye, mustard — plants that feed the soil, not the gardener.
Cover crops (also called green manures) are plants grown specifically to improve soil rather than for food. They prevent erosion, suppress weeds, add organic matter, fix nitrogen, break pest cycles, and support soil biodiversity. Every productive garden should incorporate cover crops into its rotation.
| Cover Crop | Season | Key Benefits | Zones | Termination Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Red Clover | Spring/Summer | Nitrogen fixation (up to 150 kg N/ha), pollinator forage | Zones 3–9 | Turn in before flowering or mow/crimp |
| White Clover | Year-round | Living mulch, nitrogen, low-growing | Zones 3–9 | Mow or turn in |
| Buckwheat | Summer | Fast-growing, suppresses weeds, attracts beneficials, scavenges phosphorus | Zones 3–10 | Turn in before seed set — 35 days |
| Hairy Vetch | Autumn/Winter | Winter-hardy nitrogen fixer, 100–200 kg N/ha, excellent organic matter | Zones 4–9 | Terminate spring before vegetable planting |
| Winter Rye | Autumn/Winter | Winter-hardy, deep roots break compaction, allelopathic (suppresses weeds) | Zones 3–8 | Roll/crimp at heading or incorporate — chemical-free |
| Phacelia | Spring/Autumn | Exceptional pollinator forage, fast-growing, non-competitive | Zones 4–9 | Turn in before flowering or let bloom then incorporate |
| Mustard | Spring/Autumn | Biofumigation (glucosinolates suppress soil-borne pathogens and nematodes) | Zones 3–9 | Chop and incorporate at flowering — essential for biofumigation |
| Crimson Clover | Autumn/Winter | Beautiful flowering cover crop, nitrogen fixation, overwinters in Zones 6+ | Zones 6–9 | Terminate before seed set |
Corn, wheat, rice, quinoa, amaranth — growing the foundations of human civilization.
While most home gardeners focus on vegetables and fruits, growing grains and staple crops is increasingly popular among self-sufficiency gardeners, permaculture practitioners, and seed savers. Even small plots can produce meaningful quantities of grain — 10 square metres can yield enough wheat for a dozen loaves of bread.
One of the most important global food crops. Corn requires warm temperatures (soil above 16°C / 60°F), full sun, and ample fertility. It is wind-pollinated and must be planted in blocks (minimum 4 rows × 4 rows) rather than single rows to ensure pollination. In Canada, sweet corn can be grown from Zone 3 onward — choose short-season varieties (65–75 days) in northern zones. Corn is a heavy feeder requiring high nitrogen. In tropical regions worldwide, maize is a staple food crop grown year-round at appropriate altitudes.
The world's most important grain crop. Winter wheat is sown in autumn, overwinters, and harvested the following summer — producing higher yields than spring wheat. Spring wheat is sown in early spring and harvested in late summer. Both types can be grown in home gardens. Harvest when heads turn golden and grain is hard. Store in cool, dry conditions — grain at less than 12% moisture content will store for years.
A highly nutritious pseudo-grain native to the Andes. Increasingly viable in temperate climates — successful commercial production now exists in the UK, Netherlands, and Canada. Quinoa tolerates frost, poor soils, and drought. Sow after last frost in spring. The seed is coated with bitter saponins — rinse thoroughly before eating. Harvest when seed heads change from green to red/gold and seeds are firm.
Amaranth is grown both for grain and for edible leaves (vegetable amaranth). Grain amaranth is a staple crop of Central American, Indian, and African traditional agriculture. Extremely heat and drought tolerant — excellent for warm dry climates. In Canada, grow as a warm-season annual. Harvest seed heads when the majority of seeds are ripe (late summer/fall). High in protein, lysine, and iron — nutritionally superior to most cereal grains.
Month-by-month guides for Canada, USA, UK, Australia, India, and Africa.
| Month | Indoors | Outdoors | Harvest |
|---|---|---|---|
| January | Onion, leek, celeriac from seed | — | Stored crops only |
| February | Tomato, pepper, eggplant, broccoli, cauliflower | — | Stored crops |
| March | Herbs (basil, parsley), lettuce, kale | Peas (if soil workable), spinach, garlic | Overwintered greens (if cold frame) |
| April | Cucumbers, squash, melons (end of month) | Lettuce, radish, beets, carrots, kale, chard, parsnip | Early spinach, overwintered crops |
| May | — | Beans (end of month), corn (after LF). Transplant tomatoes, peppers after LF (Victoria Day) | Lettuce, radish, peas (late) |
| June | — | All warm crops. Succession sow lettuce, beets, carrots, beans | Lettuce, radish, peas, kale, herbs |
| July | Broccoli, kale (for fall) | Succession sow: lettuce, beans, beets, carrots | Beans, cucumber, zucchini, peas, herbs, berries |
| August | — | Fall crops: spinach, lettuce, kale, arugula, radish, turnip, bok choy | Tomatoes, peppers, corn, beans, squash, peaches, apples (late) |
| September | — | Last sowings of fast crops (radish, spinach) | Main harvest season — all crops |
| October | — | Plant garlic for next year | Squash, pumpkins, root vegetables, late apples |
| November | — | Mulch garlic, protect perennials | Root vegetables (mulched in ground) |
| December | — | — | Stored crops, root cellar |
| Month | Indoors/Under Glass | Outdoors | Harvest |
|---|---|---|---|
| January | Onion, leek from seed; chit potatoes | — | Parsnips, leeks, sprouts, kale, chard |
| February | Tomato, pepper, aubergine, celeriac; broad beans | Broad beans (sheltered areas) | Kale, leeks, purple sprouting broccoli |
| March | Herbs, lettuce, calabrese, brassica transplants | Peas, spinach, lettuce (cold frame), first early potatoes | Purple sprouting broccoli, early greens |
| April | Courgettes, cucumbers, squash, French beans | Carrots, beetroot, parsnips, onion sets, second early potatoes | Sprouting broccoli, asparagus (established beds) |
| May | — | All half-hardy plants after frost risk; maincrop potatoes, runner beans | Asparagus, early salads, radish, peas (late) |
| June | — | Succession sowings: lettuce, chard, beans, courgette | Lettuce, peas, broad beans, early strawberries, gooseberries |
| July | — | Brassica transplants for autumn; succession lettuce | Beans, courgette, cucumbers, tomatoes (indoor), berries, garlic, onions |
| August | — | Autumn/winter lettuce, Oriental greens, spinach, turnips, spring onions | Outdoor tomatoes (south UK), peppers, sweetcorn, beans, plums, apples |
| September | — | Winter salads under cover, garlic planting | Main harvest — all crops. Apple and pear season. |
| October | Winter lettuce (cold frame) | Garlic, overwintering onion sets, broad beans (mild areas) | Squash, pumpkins, late apples, root vegetables |
| November | — | — | Leeks, kale, parsnips, Brussels sprouts |
| December | — | — | Sprouts, kale, parsnips, leeks, stored crops |
Note: All months below are Southern Hemisphere months. The growing rhythm is the mirror image of the Northern Hemisphere.
| Month | Sow Indoors | Sow/Plant Outdoors | Harvest |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jan–Feb (Summer) | — | Autumn crops: leek, onion, brassicas | Tomatoes, beans, zucchini, corn, capsicum, stone fruit |
| Mar–Apr (Autumn) | Tomatoes, capsicum (for spring — in heated propagator) | Brassicas, peas, broad beans, root veg, garlic, onions, lettuce | Tomatoes (end), autumn crops starting |
| May–Jul (Winter) | Tomatoes, peppers (heated propagator in July) | Brassicas, peas, broad beans, silverbeet, spinach, garlic | Winter brassicas, root veg, leeks |
| Aug–Sep (Spring) | Warm season crops (tomatoes, capsicum, cucurbits) | Lettuce, peas, radish, spring onions | Brassicas, leeks, broad beans |
| Oct–Nov (Spring) | — | Tomatoes, zucchini, cucumber, corn, beans (after last frost) | Lettuce, peas, strawberries |
| Dec (Summer) | — | Succession plantings of warm crops | Early tomatoes, zucchini, beans, berries |
How to save seeds from your best plants and store them for years or decades.
Seed saving connects gardeners to a 10,000-year tradition of human agriculture. It allows you to preserve rare and heirloom varieties that may disappear from the commercial market, adapt plants to your specific growing conditions through selection over generations, achieve complete self-sufficiency (never buy seeds again), and contribute to the global genetic diversity that is the foundation of food security. Only open-pollinated (OP) and heirloom seeds can be successfully saved to produce true-to-type offspring — F1 hybrid seeds do not breed true.
| Difficulty | Crops | Key Challenge | Isolation Distance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Easy | Lettuce, tomato, pea, bean, pepper | Minimal crossing risk — self-pollinating | 3–6 metres (lettuce, tomato, pea, bean) |
| Moderate | Squash, cucumber, melon, pumpkin, corn | Cross-pollination between varieties — hand pollinate or isolate by distance or timing | 400–800 metres (cross-pollinating crops) |
| Advanced | Brassicas, onion, beet, carrot, parsnip | Biennial (must overwinter plant) or complex pollination biology | 400–1,600 metres |
Dry seeds thoroughly before storage — moisture is the primary enemy of seed viability. Spread seeds on paper plates, screens, or glass in a warm, well-ventilated area out of direct sunlight. Stir daily. Dry until seeds snap when bent (they should not flex — flex indicates remaining moisture). For wet-seeded crops (tomato, cucumber, squash), use the fermentation method: mix seeds and flesh with water, ferment 2–4 days until mould forms, rinse thoroughly, then dry as above.
Seeds store longest when kept cool, dark, and dry. The combined temperature (°F) and relative humidity (%) should ideally total less than 100 for long-term storage. The ideal is: temperature 4°C (40°F), humidity below 40%. Refrigerators work well if humidity is controlled — store seeds in sealed glass jars with a silica gel desiccant packet.
| Crop | Typical Seed Viability | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Onion, parsnip, parsley | 1–2 years | Replace annually for best germination |
| Pepper, corn, okra | 2–3 years | Decline significantly after 2–3 years |
| Carrot, pea, bean | 3–4 years | Good viability with proper storage |
| Tomato, cucumber, squash, melon | 4–6 years | Excellent long-term viability |
| Lettuce, radish, beet | 4–6 years | Good viability; test germination before planting old stock |
| Brassicas (cabbage, broccoli) | 4–5 years | Test germination after 3 years |
The world's most important repository of genetic diversity is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway — storing over 1.3 million seed samples from nearly every country in the world as a backup against catastrophic loss. Other critical seed banks include the Vavilov Institute (Russia), the National Seed Laboratory (UK), the USDA National Plant Germplasm System (USA), and hundreds of regional and community seed banks. The global seed banking network represents humanity's greatest insurance policy against agricultural collapse.
Growing from seed is one of the most fundamentally human activities. For 10,000 years, every civilization on Earth has been built on the practice of saving, planting, tending, and harvesting seeds. Modern agriculture has concentrated this activity into the hands of a few large corporations, but the knowledge remains with us — it can always be reclaimed by anyone with a patch of ground, a packet of seeds, and the patience to tend them. There is no more direct way to participate in the cycle of life, to connect with the earth, and to provide for yourself and your community than to grow food from seed. Start small, learn as you go, make mistakes, observe what the plants tell you, and build your knowledge season by season. This guide is a beginning — the real education happens in the garden.
— Good growing to you. —